-12-
BBBBBBBB
B
Time—35minutes27Questions
Directions:Eachpassageinthissectionisfollowedbyagroupofquestionstobeansweredonthebasisofwhatisstatedorimpliedinthepassage.Forsomeofthequestions,morethanoneofthechoicescouldconceivablyanswerthequestion.However,youaretochoosethebestanswer;thatis,theresponsethatmostaccuratelyandcompletelyanswersthequestion,andblackenthecorrespondingspaceonyouranswersheet.
Anumberofnaturaldisastersinrecentyears—suchasearthquakes,majorstorms,andfloods—thathaveaffectedlargepopulationsofpeoplehaveforcedreliefagencies,communities,andentirenationsto(5)reevaluatethewaysinwhichtheyrespondintheaftermathsofsuchdisasters.Theybelievethat
traditionalwaysofdealingwithdisastershaveprovedineffectiveonseveraloccasionsand,insomecases,havebeendestructiveratherthanhelpfultothe(10)
communitieshitbythesesuddenandunexpectedcrises.Traditionally,reliefhasbeenbasedonthepremisethataidinpostdisastersituationsismosteffectiveifgivenintheimmediateaftermathofanevent.Ahighpriorityalsohasbeenplacedonthe(15)
quantityofaidmaterials,programs,andpersonnel,inthebeliefthatthenegativeimpactofadisastercanbecounteractedbyalargeandrapidinfusionofaid.Criticsclaimthatsuchanapproachoftencreatesanewsetofdifficultiesforalreadyhard-hit(20)
communities.Teamsofuninvitedexpertsand
personnel—allofwhomneedfoodandshelter—aswellasuncoordinatedshipmentsofgoodsandtheestablishmentofprogramsinappropriatetolocalneedscanquicklyleadtoasecondary“disaster”as(25)
alreadystrainedlocalinfrastructuresbreakdownunderthepressureofthislargeinfluxofresources.Insomeinstances,tonsoffoodhavedisappearedintolocalmarketsforresale,and,withinadequateaccountingprocedures,billionsofdollarsinaid(30)
moneyhavegoneunaccountedfor.
Todevelopamoreeffectiveapproach,expertsrecommendshiftingthefocustothelongterm.Aresponsethatproduceslastingbenefit,theseexpertsclaim,requiresthatcommunitymembersdefinethe(35)
formandmethodofaidthataremostappropriatetotheirneeds.Grassrootsdialoguedesignedtofacilitatepreparednessshouldbeencouragedindisaster-pronecommunitieslongbeforetheonsetofacrisis,sothatinadisaster’simmediateaftermath,reliefagencies(40)
canrelyonmembersofaffectedcommunitiestotakethelead.Thepracticaleffectofthisapproachisthataidtakestheformofaresponsetothestateddesiresofthoseaffectedratherthananimmediate,thoughlessinformed,actionontheirbehalf.
(45)
Thoughthisproposalappearssound,itssuccessdependsonhowanimportantconstituency,namelydonors,willrespond.Historically,
donors—individuals,corporations,foundations,andgovernmentalbodies—havebeenmostlikelyto(50)
respondonlyintheimmediateaftermathofacrisis.
However,communitiesaffectedbydisasterstypicallyhaveseverallong-termneedssuchastherebuildingofhousesandroads,andthusthemonthsandyearsafteradisasterarealsocrucial.Donorsthat(55)
incorporatedialoguewithmembersofaffectedcommunitiesintotheirreliefplanscouldfoster
strategiesthatmoreefficientlyutilizeimmediateaidaswellasprovideforthedifficultiesfacingcommunitiesintheyearsafteradisaster.
1.
Whichoneofthefollowingmostaccuratelyexpressesthemainpointofthepassage?(A)
Themostusefulresponsetoanaturaldisasterisoneinwhichreliefagenciesallowvictimstodictatethetypeofaidtheyreceive,whichwillmostlikelyresultintheallocationoflong-termratherthanimmediateaid.
(B)
Thequantityofaidgivenafteranaturaldisasterreflectsthedesiresofdonorsmorethantheneedsofrecipients,andinsomecasesgreatquantitiesofaidaredestructiveratherthanhelpful.
(C)
Aidthatfocusesonlong-termneedsisdifficulttoorganizebecause,byitsverydefinition,itrequiresthatreliefagenciesfocusonconstructinganadequatedialogueamongrecipients,providers,anddonors.
(D)
Disasterreliefeffortshavebeenmarkedbyinefficienciesthatattesttotheneedfordonorsandreliefagenciestocommunicatewith
affectedcommunitiesconcerninghowbesttomeetnotonlytheirshort-termbutalsotheirlong-termneeds.
(E)
Thoughtheyearsafteradisasterarecrucialforcommunitiesaffectedbydisasters,thedaysandweeksimmediatelyafteradisasterarewhatcapturetheattentionofdonors,thusforcingreliefagenciesintotheroleofmediatorsbetweenthetwoextremes.
GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.
B
BBBB2.
Whichoneofthefollowingexamplesbestillustratesthetypeofdisasterresponserecommendedbytheexpertsmentionedinthethirdparagraph?
(A)Afteraflood,localofficialsrejectthreemore
expensiveproposalsbeforefinallyacceptinga
contractor’splantocontrolalocalriverwithadam.
(B)Followingaplandevelopedseveralyearsago
byareliefagencyinconsultationwithdonorsandcommunitymembers,thereliefagencyprovidestemporaryshelterimmediatelyafterafloodandlaterhelpsrebuildhousesdestroyedbytheflood.
(C)Immediatelyafteraflood,severaldifferentrelief
agencies,eachactingindependently,sendlargeshipmentsofgoodstotheaffectedcommunityalongwithteamsofhighlymotivatedbutuntrainedvolunteerstocoordinatethedistributionofthesegoods.
(D)Attherequestofitsdonors,aprivaterelief
agencydelaysprovidinganyassistanceto
victimsofaflooduntilaftertheagencyconductsathoroughstudyofthetypesofaidmostlikelytohelptheaffectedcommunityinthelongrun.
(E)Afteraflood,governmentofficialspersuade
localcompaniestoincreasetheircorporategivinglevelsandtodirectmoreaidtothesurroundingcommunity.3.
Theauthorofthepassagewouldbemostlikelytoagreewithwhichoneofthefollowingstatements?(A)Disasterreliefplansareappropriateonlyfor
disaster-pronecommunities.
(B)Whencommunitiesaffectedbydisastershave
articulatedtheirlong-termneeds,donors
typicallyhavebeenresponsivetothoseneeds.
(C)Donorswouldlikelyprovidemoredisasterrelief
aidiftheyhadconfidencethatitwouldbeusedmoreeffectivelythanaidcurrentlyis.
(D)Itisnottheamountofaidbutrathertheway
thisaidismanagedthatisthesourceofcurrentproblemsindisasterrelief.
(E)Fewcommunitiesaffectedbydisasters
experienceacrucialneedforshort-termaid.4.
Theauthordiscussesdonorsinthefinalparagraphprimarilyinorderto
(A)pointtoaninfluentialgroupofpeoplewhohave
resistedchangestotraditionaldisasterresponseefforts
(B)demonstratethattheneedsofdonorsandaid
recipientscontrastprofoundlyontheissueofdisasterresponse
(C)showthatimplementinganeffectivedisaster
reliefprogramrequiresanewapproachonthepartofdonorsaswellasreliefagencies
(D)illustratethatreliefagenciesanddonorsshare
similarviewsonthegoalsofdisasterresponsebutdisagreeontheproperresponsemethods
(E)concedethatthereformationofdisasterrelief
programs,whilenecessary,isunlikelytotakeplacebecauseofthedisagreementsamongdonors
B
BBB
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B
5.
Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheauthorwouldbemostlikelytoviewashifttowardamorelong-termperspectiveindisasterreliefeffortsaswhichoneofthefollowing?
(A)
adevelopmentthatwouldbenefitaffected
communitiesaswellasaidproviderswhohaveasharedinterestinreliefeffortsthatareeffectiveandwellmanaged
(B)
achangethatwouldhelpcommunitiesmeettheirfutureneedsmoreeffectivelybutwouldinevitablyresultinadetrimentalreductionofshort-termaidlikefoodandmedicine
(C)
anapproachthatwouldenableaidrecipientstomeettheirlong-termneedsbutwhichwouldnotaddressthemismanagementthathampersshort-termreliefefforts
(D)amovementthat,whilewellintentioned,willlikelybeunderminedbytheunwillingnessofdonorstoacceptnewmethodsofdeliveringaid(E)
thebeginningofatrendinwhichaidrecipientsplayamajorroleafteradisasteranddonorsplayaminorrole,reversingthestructureoftraditionalaidprograms
6.
Whichoneofthefollowinginferencesaboutnaturaldisastersandreliefeffortsismoststronglysupportedbythepassage?(A)
Althoughinefficiencieshavelongbeenpresentininternationaldisasterreliefprograms,theyhavebeenaggravatedinrecentyearsby
increaseddemandsonreliefagencies’limitedresources.
(B)
Localcommunitieshadexpressedlittleinterestintakingresponsibilityfortheirown
preparednesspriortothemostrecentyears,thusleavingdonorsandreliefagenciesunawareofpotentialproblems.
(C)
Numerousreliefeffortsintheyearspriortothemostrecentprovidedsuchvastquantitiesofaidthatmostneedsweremetdespiteevidenceofinefficiencyandmismanagement,andfewrecipientcommunitiesquestionedtraditionaldisasterresponsemethods.
(D)
Membersofcommunitiesaffectedbydisastershavelongarguedthattheyshouldsettheagendaforreliefefforts,butreliefagencieshaveonlyrecentlycometorecognizethevalidityoftheirarguments.
(E)
Anumberofwastefulreliefeffortsinthemostrecentyearsprovideddramaticillustrationsofaidprogramsthatwereimplementedbydonorsandagencieswithlittleaccountabilitytopopulationsaffectedbydisasters.
GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.
B
-14-
BBBBThemoralpreceptsembodiedintheHippocraticoath,whichphysiciansstandardlyaffirmuponbeginningmedicalpractice,havelongbeen
consideredtheimmutablebedrockofmedicalethics,(5)
bindingphysiciansinamoralcommunitythatreachesacrosstemporal,cultural,andnationalbarriers.Untilveryrecentlythepromisesexpressedinthatoath—forexampletoactprimarilyforthebenefitandnottheharmofpatientsandtoconformtovariousstandards(10)
ofprofessionalconductincludingthepreservationofpatients’confidences—evenseemedimpervioustothepowerfulscientificandsocietalforceschallengingit.Criticsarguethattheoathisoutdated;itsfixedmoralrules,theysay,areincompatiblewithmoreflexible(15)
modernideasaboutethics.Italsoencouragesdoctorstoadoptanauthoritarianstancethatdepreciatestheprivacyandautonomyofthepatient.Furthermore,itsemphasisontheindividualpatientwithoutregardforthewidersocialcontextfrustratesthephysician’s(20)
emergingroleasgatekeeperinmanagedcareplansandimpedescompetitivemarketforces,which,somecriticsbelieve,shoulddeterminethequality,price,anddistributionofhealthcareastheydothoseofothercommodities.Theoathisalsofaultedforits(25)
omissions:itsfailuretomentionsuchvital
contemporaryissuesashumanexperimentationandtherelationshipsofphysicianstootherhealth
professionals.Somerespectedopponentsevencitehistoricaldoubtsabouttheoath’soriginand
(30)
authorship,presentingevidencethatitwasformulatedbyasmallgroupofreformistphysiciansinancientGreeceandthatforcenturiesitwasnotuniformlyacceptedbymedicalpractitioners.
Thishistoricalissuemaybedismissedatthe(35)
outsetasirrelevanttotheoath’scurrent
appropriateness.Regardlessofthespecificoriginofitstext—which,admittedly,isatbest
uncertain—thoseineachgenerationwhocriticallyappraiseitscontentandjudgeittoexpressvalid(40)
principlesofmedicalethicsbecome,inamore
meaningfulsense,itsauthors.Moreimportantly,eventhemoresubstantive,morallybasedarguments
concerningcontemporaryvaluesandnewlyrelevantissuescannotnegatethepatients’needforassurance(45)
thatphysicianswillpursueappropriategoalsintreatmentinaccordancewithgenerallyacceptablestandardsofprofessionalism.Tofulfillthatneed,thecorevalueofbeneficence—whichdoesnotactuallyconflictwithmostreformers’purposes—shouldbe(50)
retained,withadaptationsattheoath’speripherybysomecombinationofrevision,supplementation,andmoderninterpretation.Infact,thereisalreadyatraditionofperipheralreinterpretationoftraditionalwording;forexample,theoath’svaguelyand
(55)
archaicallywordedproscriptionagainst“cuttingforthestone”mayoncehaveservedtoforbidsurgery,butwithtoday’ssaferandmoreeffectivesurgicaltechniquesitisunderstoodtofunctionasapromisetopracticewithintheconfinesofone’sexpertise,(60)
whichremainsanecessarysafeguardforpatients’safetyandwell-being.
B
BBB
B
7.
Whichoneofthefollowingmostaccuratelystatesthemainpointofthepassage?
(A)
TheHippocraticoathoughttobereevaluatedcarefully,withspecialregardtotheroleofthephysician,tomakecertainthatitsfundamentalmoralrulesstillapplytoday.
(B)
DespiterecentcriticismsoftheHippocraticoath,someversionofitthatwillcontinuetoassurepatientsofphysicians’professionalismandbeneficenttreatmentoughttoberetained.(C)
Codesofethicsdevelopedforonesocietyataparticularpointinhistorymaylosesomespecificapplicationinlatersocietiesbutcanretainausefulfundamentalmoralpurpose.
(D)
EventhecriticismsoftheHippocraticoathbasedoncontemporaryvaluesandnewlyrelevantmedicalissuescannotnegatepatients’needforassurance.
(E)
Modernideasaboutethics,especiallymedicalethics,obviatetheneedforandappropriatenessofasinglecodeofmedicalethicsliketheHippocraticoath.
8.
Whichoneofthefollowingmostaccuratelydescribestheorganizationofthematerialpresentedinthepassage?(A)
Ageneralprincipleisdescribed,criticismsoftheprinciplearemade,andmodificationsoftheprinciplearemadeinlightofthesecriticisms.
(B)Asetofcriticismsisputforward,andpossiblerepliestothosecriticismsareconsideredanddismissed.
(C)
Thehistoryofacertaincodeofconductis
discussed,criticismsofthecodearementionedandpartiallyendorsed,andthecodeismodifiedasaresponse.
(D)
Ageneralprincipleisformulated,apartialdefenseofthatprincipleispresented,andcriticismsoftheprinciplearediscussedandrejected.
(E)
Thetraditionsurroundingacertaincodeof
conductisdiscussed,criticismsofthatcodearementioned,andageneraldefenseofthecodeispresented.
GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.
B
BBBB9.
ThepassageciteswhichoneofthefollowingasavalueattheheartoftheHippocraticoaththatshouldpresentnodifficultytomostreformers?
(A)creationofacommunityofphysiciansfromalleras,nations,andcultures
(B)constantimprovementandadvancementofmedicalscience
(C)provisionofmedicalcaretoallindividualsregardlessofabilitytopay
(D)physicianactionforthebenefitofpatients(E)
observanceofestablishedmoralruleseveninthefaceofchallengingsocietalforces
10.Theauthor’sprimarypurposeinthepassageisto
(A)affirmsociety’scontinuingneedforacodeembodyingcertainprinciples
(B)chastisecriticswithinthemedicalcommunitywhosupportreinterpretationofacodeembodyingcertainprinciples
(C)arguethathistoricaldoubtsabouttheoriginofacertaincodeareirrelevanttoitsinterpretation(D)outlinetheprosandconsofrevisingacodeembodyingcertainprinciples
(E)
proposearevisionofacodeembodyingcertainprinciplesthatwillincreasethecode’sapplicabilitytomoderntimes
11.Basedoninformationinthepassage,itcanbeinferred
thatwhichoneofthefollowingsentencescouldmostlogicallybeaddedtothepassageasaconcludingsentence?
(A)Thefactthatsuchreinterpretationsaresoeasy,however,suggeststhatourrejectionofthehistoricalissuewasperhapspremature.(B)Yet,wheresuchpiecemealreinterpretationisnotpossible,revisionstoeventhecorevalueoftheoathmaybenecessary.
(C)
Itisthussimplyafailureoftheimagination,andnotanychangesinthemedicalprofessionorsocietyingeneral,thathasmotivatedcriticsoftheHippocraticoath.
(D)
BecauseofthistraditionofreinterpretationoftheHippocraticoath,therefore,modernideasaboutmedicalethicsmustbemuchmoreflexiblethantheyhavebeeninthepast.
(E)
Despitemanynewchallengesfacingthemedicalprofession,therefore,thereisnorealneedforwholesalerevisionoftheHippocraticoath.
B
BBB
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B
12.Eachofthefollowingismentionedinthepassageasa
criticismoftheHippocraticoathEXCEPT:
(A)Theoathencouragesauthoritarianismonthepartofphysicians.
(B)TheversionoftheoathinusetodayisnotidenticaltotheoathformulatedinancientGreece.
(C)Theoathfailstoaddressmodernmedical
dilemmasthatcouldnothavebeenforeseeninancientGreece.
(D)Theoath’sabsolutismisincompatiblewithcontemporaryviewsofmorality.
(E)
Theoath’semphasisontheindividualpatientisoftennotcompatiblewithamarket-drivenmedicalindustry.
13.Whichoneofthefollowingcanmostaccuratelybe
usedtodescribetheauthor’sattitudetowardcriticsoftheHippocraticoath?
(A)enthusiasticsupport(B)bemuseddismissal(C)reasoneddisagreement(D)strictneutrality(E)
guardedagreement
14.Whichoneofthefollowingwouldbemostsuitableas
atitleforthispassageifitweretoappearasaneditorialpiece?
(A)“TheAncientsversustheModerns:ConflictingIdeasAboutMedicalEthics”
(B)“HypocriticalOafs:Why‘ManagedCare’ProponentsareSeekingtoRepealanAncientCode”
(C)“GeneticFallacyintheAgeofGene-Splicing:WhytheOriginsoftheHippocraticOathDon’tMatter”
(D)“TheDeadHandofHippocrates:BreakingtheHoldofAncientIdeasonModernMedicine”(E)
“PrescriptionfortheHippocraticOath:FaceliftorMajorSurgery?”
GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.
B
-16-
BBBBAlichenconsistsofafunguslivinginsymbiosis(i.e.,amutuallybeneficialrelationship)withanalga.Althoughmostbranchesofthecomplexevolutionaryfamilytreeoffungihavebeenwellestablished,the(5)
evolutionaryoriginsoflichen-formingfungihavebeenamystery.ButanewDNAstudyhasrevealedtherelationshipoflichen-formingfungitoseveralpreviouslyknownbranchesofthefungusfamilytree.Thestudyrevealsthat,farfrombeingoddities,(10)
lichen-formingfungiarecloserelativesofsuch
commonfungiasbrewer’syeast,morelmushrooms,andthefungusthatcausesDutchelmdisease.Thisaccountsforthevisiblesimilarityofcertainlichenstomorerecognizablefungisuchasmushrooms.(15)
Ingeneral,fungipresentcomplicationsfortheresearcher.Fungiareusuallyparasiticorsymbiotic,andresearchersareoftenunsurewhethertheyareexaminingfungalDNAorthatoftheassociatedorganism.Butlichen-formingfungiareespecially(20)
difficulttostudy.Theyhavefewdistinguishingcharacteristicsofshapeorstructure,andtheyareunusuallydifficulttoisolatefromtheirpartneralgae,withwhichtheyhaveaparticularlydelicate
symbiosis.Insomecasesthealgaiswedgedbetween(25)
layersoffungaltissue;inothers,thefungusgrowsthroughthealga’scellwallsinordertotake
nourishment,andthetissuesofthetwoorganismsareentirelyenmeshedandinseparable.Asaresult,lichen-formingfungihavelongbeendifficultto(30)
classifydefinitivelywithinthefungusfamily.Bydefaulttheywerethusconsideredaseparategroupingoffungiwithanunknownevolutionaryorigin.But,usingnewanalyticaltoolsthatallowthemtoisolatetheDNAoffungiinparasiticorsymbiotic
(35)
relationships,researcherswereabletoestablishtheDNAsequenceinacertaingenefoundin75speciesoffungi,including10speciesoflichen-forming
fungi.Basedontheseanalyses,theresearchersfound5branchesonthefungusfamilytreetowhich
(40)
varietiesoflichen-formingfungibelong.Furthermore,theresearchersstressthatitislikelythatasmoretypesoflichen-formingfungiareanalyzed,theywillbefoundtobelongtostillmorebranchesofthefungusfamilytree.
(45)
Oneimplicationofthenewresearchisthatitprovidesevidencetohelpoverturnthelong-standingevolutionaryassumptionthatparasiticinteractionsinevitablyevolveovertimetoagreaterbenignityandeventuallytosymbiosissothattheparasiteswillnot(50)
destroytheirhosts.Theadditionoflichen-formingfungitopositionsalongbranchesofthefungusfamilytreeindicatesthatthisassumptiondoesnotholdforfungi.Fungibothharmfulandbenigncannowbefoundbothearlyandlateinfungus
(55)
evolutionaryhistory.Giventhenewlayoutofthefungusfamilytreeresultingfromthelichenstudy,itappearsthatfungicanevolvetowardmutualismandthenjustaseasilyturnbackagaintowardparasitism.
B
BBB
B
15.Whichoneofthefollowingmostaccuratelystatesthe
mainpointofthepassage?
(A)Newresearchsuggeststhatfungiarenotonlyparasiticbutalsosymbioticorganisms.
(B)Newresearchhasrevealedthatlichen-formingfungiconstituteadistinctspeciesoffungus.(C)Newresearchintotheevolutionaryoriginsoflichen-formingfungirevealsthemtobecloselyrelatedtovariousspeciesofalgae.
(D)NewresearchhasisolatedtheDNAoflichen-formingfungianduncoveredtheirrelationshiptothefungusfamilytree.
(E)
Newresearchintothefungalcomponentof
lichensexplainsthevisiblesimilaritiesbetweenlichensandfungibymeansoftheircommonevolutionaryorigins.
16.Whichoneofthefollowingmostaccuratelydescribes
theauthor’spurposeinthelastparagraphofthepassage?
(A)
tosuggestthatnewresearchoverturnstheassumptionthatlichen-formingfungiareprimarilysymbiotic,ratherthanparasitic,organisms
(B)
toshowthatfindingsbasedonnewresearchregardingfungusclassificationhaveimplicationsthataffectalong-standingassumptionofevolutionaryscience
(C)
toexplainthefundamentalpurposesoffungusclassificationinordertopositionthisclassificationwithinthebroaderfieldofevolutionaryscience
(D)todemonstratethatafundamentalassumptionofevolutionaryscienceisverifiedbynewresearchregardingfungusclassification(E)
toexplainhowsymbioticrelationshipscanevolveintopurelyparasiticones
GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.
B
BBBB17.Whichoneofthefollowingmostaccuratelydescribes
theorganizationofthepassage?
(A)explanationofthedifficultyofclassifyinglichens;descriptionoftheDNAsequenceoflichen-formingfungi;summaryoftheimplicationsofthisdescription
(B)
definitionoflichens;discussionofnew
discoveriesconcerninglichens’evolutionaryhistory;applicationofthesefindingsinsupportofanevolutionarytheory
(C)
definitionoflichens;discussionofthedifficultyinclassifyingtheirfungalcomponents;
resolutionofthisdifficultyandimplicationsoftheresultingresearch
(D)
discussionofthesymbioticrelationshipthatconstituteslichens;discussionofhownewresearchcandistinguishparasiticfrom
symbioticfungi;implicationsofthisresearch(E)
explanationofthesymbioticnatureoflichens;discussionoftheproblemsthisposesforgeneticresearchers;delineationoftheimplicationstheseproblemshaveforevolutionarytheory
18.Accordingtothepassage,theeliminationofwhichone
ofthefollowingobstaclesenabledscientiststoidentifytheevolutionaryoriginsoflichen-formingfungi?
(A)TheDNAoflichen-formingfungiwasnoteasytoseparatefromthatoftheirassociatedalgae.(B)Lichen-formingfungiaredifficulttodistinguishfromseveralcommonfungiwithwhichtheyarecloselyrelated.
(C)Lichen-formingfungiweregroupedseparatelyfromotherfungionthefungusfamilytree.(D)Lichen-formingfungiarefarlesscommonthanmorerecognizablefungisuchasmushrooms.(E)
TheDNAoflichen-formingfungiis
significantlymorecomplexthanthatofotherfungi.
B
BBB
-17-
B
19.Whichoneofthefollowing,iftrue,mostweakensthe
author’scriticismoftheassumptionthatparasiticinteractionsgenerallyevolvetowardsymbiosis?
(A)Evolutionarytheoristsnowpostulatethat
symbioticinteractionsgenerallyevolvetowardgreaterparasitism,ratherthanviceversa.(B)Theevolutionarytreeoffungiissomewhatmorecomplexthanthatofsimilarlyparasiticorsymbioticorganisms.
(C)TheDNAoffungiinvolvedinsymbiotic
interactionsisfarmoredifficulttoisolatethanthatoffungiinvolvedinparasiticinteractions.(D)
Theplacementoflichen-formingfungiasaseparategrouponthefungusfamilytree
maskedthefactthatparasiticfungisometimesevolvedmuchlaterthansymbioticones.(E)
Branchesofthefungusfamilytreethathaveevolvedfromsymbiosistoparasitismusuallydieoutshortlythereafter.
GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.
B
-18-
BBBBThefollowingpassagewaswritteninthelate1980s.Thestruggletoobtainlegalrecognitionof
aboriginalrightsisadifficultone,andevenifarightiswrittenintothelawthereisnoguaranteethatthefuturewillnotbringchangestothelawthat(5)
underminetheright.Forthisreason,thefederalgovernmentofCanadain1982extended
constitutionalprotectiontothoseaboriginalrightsalreadyrecognizedunderthelaw.ThisprotectionwasextendedtotheIndian,Inuit,andMe´tispeoples,the(10)
threegroupsgenerallythoughttocomprisethe
aboriginalpopulationinCanada.Butthisdecisionhasplacedonprovincialcourtstheenormousburdenofinterpretingandtranslatingthenecessarilygeneralconstitutionallanguageintospecificrulings.The(15)
resulthasbeeninconsistentrecognitionandestablishmentofaboriginalrights,despitethe
continuedeffortsofaboriginalpeoplestoraiseissuesconcerningtheirrights.
AboriginalrightsinCanadaaredefinedbythe(20)
constitutionasaboriginalpeoples’rightstoownershipoflandanditsresources,theinherentrightof
aboriginalsocietiestoself-government,andtherighttolegalrecognitionofindigenouscustoms.But
difficultiesariseinapplyingthesebroadlyconceived(25)
rights.Forexample,whileitmightappearstraightforwardtoaffirmlegalrecognitionofindigenouscustoms,theexactlegalmeaningof“indigenous”isextremelydifficulttointerpret.Theintentoftheconstitutionalprotectionistorecognize(30)
onlylong-standingtraditionalcustoms,notthoseofrecentorigin;provincialcourtsthereforerequireaboriginalpeoplestoprovidelegaldocumentationthatanycustomstheyseektoprotectwerepracticedsufficientlylongago—acriteriondefinedinpractice(35)
tomeanpriortotheestablishmentofBritish
sovereigntyoverthespecificterritory.However,thisrequirementmakesitdifficultforaboriginalsocieties,whichoftenreliedonoraltraditionratherthanwrittenrecords,tosupporttheirclaims.
(40)
Furthermore,evenifaboriginalpeoplesare
successfulinconvincingthecourtsthatspecificrightsshouldberecognized,itisfrequentlydifficulttodetermineexactlywhattheserightsamountto.Consideraboriginallandclaims.Evenwhen(45)
aboriginalownershipofspecificlandsisfully
established,thereremainstheproblemofinterpretingthemeaningofthat“ownership.”Ina1984caseinOntario,anaboriginalgroupclaimedthatitspropertyrightsshouldbeinterpretedasfullownershipinthe(50)contemporarysenseofprivateproperty,whichallowsforthesaleofthelandoritsresources.Buttheprovincialcourtinsteadruledthatthelawhad
previouslyrecognizedonlytheaboriginalrighttousethelandandthereforegrantedpropertyrightsso(55)
minimalastoallowonlythebaresurvivalofthe
B
BBB
B
community.Here,theprovincialcourt’srulingwasexcessivelyconservativeinitsassessmentofthecurrentlaw.Regrettably,itappearsthatthisgroupwillnotbesuccessfulunlessitisabletomoveits(60)
casefromtheprovincialcourtsintotheSupremeCourtofCanada,whichwillbe,onehopes,moreinsistentuponasatisfactoryapplicationoftheconstitutionalreforms.
20.Whichoneofthefollowingmostaccuratelystatesthe
mainpointofthepassage?
(A)
TheoverlyconservativerulingsofCanada’sprovincialcourtshavebeenabarriertoconstitutionalreformsintendedtoprotectaboriginalrights.
(B)
TheoverwhelmingburdenplacedonprovincialcourtsofinterpretingconstitutionallanguageinCanadahashaltedeffortsbyaboriginalpeoplestogainfullownershipofland.
(C)
ConstitutionallanguageaimedatprotectingaboriginalrightsinCanadahassofarlefttheprotectionoftheserightsuncertainduetothedifficulttaskofinterpretingthislanguage.(D)
Constitutionalreformsmeanttoprotect
aboriginalrightsinCanadahaveinfactbeenusedbysomeprovincialcourtstolimittheserights.
(E)
EffortsbyaboriginalrightsadvocatestoupholdconstitutionalreformsinCanadamaybemoresuccessfulifheardbytheSupremeCourtratherthanbytheprovincialcourts.
21.Whichoneofthefollowingmostaccuratelydescribes
theauthor’smainpurposeinlines11–14ofthepassage?
(A)todemonstratethatthedecisionsofthe
provincialcourtsrarelyconformtothegoalsoftheconstitutionalreforms
(B)tolocatethesourceofasystemicprobleminprotectingaboriginalrightsinCanada
(C)toidentifythespecificsourceofproblemsinenactingconstitutionalreformsinCanada(D)todescribeoneaspectoftheprocessbywhichconstitutionalreformsareenactedinCanada(E)
tocriticizetheuseofgenerallanguageintheCanadianconstitution
GOONTOTHENEXTPAGE.
B
(A)(B)(C)(D)(E)
BBBBB
(A)(B)(C)(D)(E)
BBB
-19-
B
22.Thepassageexplicitlystatesthatwhichoneofthe
followingwasintendedasaconsequenceoftheconstitutionalprotectionofaboriginalrights?
definitionofthetypeofpropertyrightsthatapplytoaboriginalsocieties
establishmentoftheSupremeCourtofCanadaasthearbiterofaboriginalrights
recognitionoftraditionalcustomsbutnotthoseofrecentorigin
clarificationofwhichgroupscomprisetheaboriginalpopulationinCanada
creationoflocalgovernmentsforaboriginalcommunities
25.Whichoneofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldlendthe
mostcredencetotheauthor’sstatementinlines56–58?
OtherOntariocourtshadpreviouslyinterpreted“use”toincludesaleofthelandoritsresources.
Therulingcreatedthousandsofjobsbyopeningthelandinquestiontologgingbyatimbercorporation.
PreviouscourtdecisionsinOntariohavedistinguishedtherighttouselandfromtherighttosellit.
Therulingpromptedaboriginalgroupsinotherprovincestopursuelandclaimsinthosecourts.Priortothedecisioninquestion,theprovincialcourthadnotheardacaseconcerningtheconstitutionalreforms.
23.Thepassageprovidesthemostevidencefortheclaim
thattheauthorhasanegativeattitudetowardwhichoneofthefollowing?
(A)(B)(C)(D)(E)
the1982constitutionalreforms’burdeningtheprovincialcourtswiththetaskofinterpretationthedifficultiesininterpretingsuchtermsas“indigenous”and“ownership”
thecriterionusedtodeterminewhichcustomsaretoorecenttomeritconstitutionalprotectiontherequirementthataboriginalpeoplesprovidedocumentationfortraditionalcustomsthedefinitionofownershipimposedbytheprovincialcourtin1984
26.Basedontheinformationinthepassage,theauthor
wouldbemostlikelytoagreewithwhichoneofthefollowingstatementsaboutthe1984caseinOntario?
(A)
Thecourt’srulingdirectlycontravenedthelanguageoftheconstitutionalreforms
protectingaboriginallandownershiprightsinthefullmodernsense.
TheSupremeCourtremainsthebesthopefortherecognitionoffullaboriginalpropertyrightsbecauseprovincialcourtsarenot
authorizedtoruleonthedefinitionofpropertyrights.
IftherehadbeencleardocumentaryevidencethatthegrouphadoccupiedthelandbeforetheestablishmentofBritishsovereignty,thecourtwouldprobablyhaveupheldtheaboriginalclaims.
Theunsatisfactoryrulinginthecasewastheresultofpressurefromconservativepoliticiansandotherconservativeinterests.
Thecourtcorrectlyunderstoodtheintentoftheconstitutionalreforms,butitfailedtoapplythemcorrectlybecauseitmisconstruedtheirrelationtoexistinglaw.
(B)
24.Thepassageprovidesevidencetosuggestthatthe
authorwouldbemostlikelytoassenttowhichoneofthefollowingproposals?
(A)(B)(C)(D)(E)
AboriginalpeoplesinCanadashouldnotbeanswerabletothefederallawsofCanada.Oraltraditionshouldsometimesbeconsideredlegaldocumentationofcertainindigenouscustoms.
Aboriginalcommunitiesshouldbegrantedfullprotectionofalloftheircustoms.
Provincialcourtsshouldbegivennoauthoritytodecidecasesinvolvingquestionsofaboriginalrights.
ThelanguageoftheCanadianconstitution
shouldmorecarefullydelineatetheinstancestowhichreformsapply.
(C)
(D)(E)
27.Thepassageasawholecanmostaccuratelybe
describedas
(A)(B)(C)(D)(E)
anargumentstressingtheneedforadvocatesofcertainrightstoadoptcertainstrategies
acomprehensivestudyofeffortstoguaranteetheprotectionofcertainrights
anexaminationofproblemsassociatedwitheffortstoprotectcertainrights
anargumentfavoringtheneedforrevisingthedefinitionofcertainrights
anattempttocorrectmisunderstandingsregardingtheprotectionofcertainrights
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