西方翻译理论的主要流派及成就
1. 美国翻译理论
Eugene. A. Nida：Functional Equivalence
Oklahoma, pious Christian, Los Angel University, South California University (Master in Holly Bible New Testament in Greece ) Michigan University (Doctor of Linguistics guided by Charles Fries & Leonard Bloomfield in1943) 美国圣经公会供职 从事组织和指导圣经翻译工作。著作40多部，论文250余篇
最早、最多，影响最大。谭载喜《奈达论翻译》《中国翻译》和外国语。 1984年，中国对外翻译出版公司 与金隄合著 On Translation: With Special Reference to Chinese and English 《论翻译》Language, Culture, and Translating (1993) 《语言、文化与翻译》Shanghai Foreign Languae Education Press世界性的深远影响，为翻译注入了新思想和活力，引进了新的概念和方法。“奈达的著作，开创了翻译理论的新时代。”（Christian Balliu）
奈达的翻译思想分成三阶段：1）描写语言学 句法、词法和语义翻译问题的描写研究2）交际理论 运用语言学理论 最重要，成熟、发展、系统3）社会符号学 运用社会语言学和社会符号学
翻译从科学到艺术的转化 翻译是艺术(art)，翻译家是天生的；翻译研究是科学(science)，是比较语言学的重要分支。翻译基本上是一种技艺（technology），需要多种学科才能产生令人满意的译作，包括语言学、文化人类学、心理学和交际理论（1996）。
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奈达的基本翻译思想：1）翻译是交际活动2）翻译主要是译意3）为了译意，必须改变语言表达形式。
翻译过程四阶段：分析(analysis)、转换(transfer)、重组(restructure)和检验(test)。
Eugene. A. Nida’s translating thought and theory have made worldwide influence. Not only has he published a great number of books and essays on translation, but also he is active in taking part in international academic exchanges and always gives lectures all over the world even in his eighties. He has brought new thought and vigor to the career of translation by introducing new concepts and methods.
Is it a translator’s task to focus primarily on the source culture or the target culture? Although the answer is not clear-cut, the dominant criterion is the communicative function of the target text.
Translating means communicating, and this process depends on what is received by persons hearing or reading a translation. Judging the validity of a translation cannot stop with a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices. What is important is the extent to which receptors correctly understand and appreciate the translated text. Accordingly, it is essential that “functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understood and appreciated the text and the way in which receptors of the translated text understand and appreciate the translated text.” Language And Culture –Contexts
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in Translating (Nida, 2001) 《语言与文化一翻译中的语境》
Nida, one of the greatest scholars in the translating field, describes his famous theory of Functional Equivalence in his several books and articles. In Toward a Science of Translating (Nida, 1964), 《翻译科学初探》he used the concept of
“dynamic equivalence” to refer to the “closest natural equivalent”. In The Theory and Practice of Translation (Nida &Taber, 1969), 《翻译理论与实践》he
improved this concept and defined it like this:
Translation is to reappear information of the source language in the target language by selecting the closest natural equivalent of the original text according to first meaning, then style.
In the definition, “close” refers to “close information to the source language”; “natural” to “natural form of expression in the target language”; “equivalent” to “the way in which they are combined”. Therefore, in a sense, Nida here focused on semantic equivalence （语义对等）instead of formal correspondence.
But the term “dynamic equivalence” is always misunderstood by some translators, accordingly many individuals have been led to think that if a translation has considerable impact then it must be a correct example of “dynamic equivalence”. And even every kind of free translations can style itself “dynamic equivalent”. Because of this misunderstanding and in order to emphasize the concept of function, it seems much more satisfactory to use the
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expression “functional equivalence” in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation. So in From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translation (Nida & Warrd, 1986), 《从一种语言到另一种语言：论圣经翻译中的功能对
等》Nida changed the term of “dynamic equivalence” into that of “functional equivalence”. The terms “function” and “functional” seem to provide a much sounder basis for talking about translation as a form of communication, since the focus is on what a translation does or performs. In this book, Nida also developed his definition of “information”, declaring that information involves the form of language as well as the content of thought. He believes that form can also convey meaning. If the form is altered, the meaning may be simultaneously changed. Subsequently, he requires that translators must try their best to achieve both “semantic equivalence” and “formal correspondence”.
The adequacy of a translation depends on a great many different factors: the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended reader, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made. So many factors make it complicate to evaluate a translation. In
The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication (Nida, 1996), 《跨语交际的社会
语言学》Nida pointed out that acknowledging the various degree of “equivalence” is more realistic. In general, it is best to speak of “functional equivalence” in terms of a range of adequacy, since no translation is ever completely equivalent. A number of different translations can, in fact, represent varying degrees of equivalence. This means that “functional equivalence” cannot be understood in its mathematical meaning of identity but in terms of proximity, i.e., on the basis of degrees of closeness to functional identity. His view
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of “functional equivalence” implies different degrees of adequacy from “minimal to maximal equivalence” on the basis of both cognitive and communicative factors. As a matter of fact, translation can only achieve “functional equivalence”, i.e., “communicative equivalence”.
Lawrence Venuti：Translating Strategy of Deconstruction
Venuti（韦努蒂）, an Italian American, Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation,1995 《译者的隐身》，韦努蒂结合政治、历史和文化考察翻译，批判了翻译史中占主导地位的以目的语文化为归宿的倾向，提出了解构主义的反对译文通顺的翻译策略。它考察了从17世纪到当代的西方翻译，揭示了“通顺的翻译“策略一直在西方翻译史上占主导地位，其根本原因是要以西方意识形态为标准，在英语中形成一种外国文学的规范。这是以民族中心主义和帝国主义文化的价值观，来塑造外国文本。
韦努蒂：“反对英美传统的以翻译的透明性(transparency)为目的的归化(domestication)，主张异化(foreignization)的翻译，其目的是要发展一种抵御以目的语文化价值观占主导地位的翻译理论和实践，以表现外国文本在语言好文化上的差异。”他反传统而行之-----在译文中看得见译者（visible），以抵御和反对当今尤其是英语国家中的翻译理论和实践规范。这就是他的“抵抗”（resistancy）翻译策略，为外国文化在英美文化中争得独立地位。
事实上，归化和异化在目的语中起着各自不能互相替代的作用，完成各自的使命，因此，两种翻译将永远并存，并起到相互补充的作用。采用何种翻译策略，最终取决于目的语文化的意识形态、赞助人的力量以及翻译诗学，取决于翻译的目的和对象。
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Andre Lefevere：Translation Study
20世纪70年代后，翻译研究程呈现多元化趋势，突破了传统的美学或语言学的模式而上升为一种文化的反思，翻译研究派首先在欧洲兴起。该学派主要探讨译文在什么样的文化背景下产生，以及译文对译入语文化中的文学规范和文化规范所产生的影响。今年来更加重视考察翻译与政治、历史、经济与社会制度之间的影响。其主要代表人物：荷兰阿姆斯特丹大学教授美国诗人、翻译家James Holmes (霍尔姆斯)，比利时学者、后移民美国并任教于得州大学奥斯汀大学的Andre Lefevere (安德烈·勒菲弗尔)，和英国学者、沃里克大学教授Susan Bassnett(苏姗·巴斯奈特)。把“翻译研究”(Translation Studies)作为翻译学科的名称，是由勒菲弗尔在1976年的一次国际翻译研讨会上正式提出来的。
翻译研究派把翻译置于广阔的文化背景中进行研究，强调历史意识和文化观点。勒菲弗尔把翻译研究与权力、思想意识、赞助人和诗学结合起来，并提出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是创造另一个文本形象的一种形式。
Andre Lefevere (安德烈·勒菲弗尔)，国际著名的文论家、比较文学家和翻译理论家。重要的翻译著作：Translating Poetry: Seven Strategies and a Blueprint, 1975(《诗歌翻译：七项策略及方案》), Translating Poetry: Practice and Theory in a Comparative Literature Context, 1992（《文学翻译：比较文学语境中的实践与理论》）Translation, Rewriting, and the Manipulation of Literary Fame, 1992（《翻译、改写及文学名声的摆布》）他还发表了100多篇论文，在比较文学领域和翻译理论界，极享盛名。1996年3月，因白血病英年早逝，时年52岁。
他的《翻译、改写及文学名声的摆布》通过对历史上一些文学作品的分析，深入论述了翻译是改写，是对文本的摆布的观点。
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勒菲弗尔提出了翻译研究中的“文化转向”（cultural turn）问题，即翻译研究不应局限于翻译本身，而应把翻译看作是一种文化发展的策略来研究。
但是，勒菲弗尔和翻译研究学派对翻译的语言学派采取全盘否定的态度是不妥当的。未来的翻译研究，将会是语言学和翻译研究派相互接近、相互补充、相互兼容的局面。
2. 英国翻译理论
Peter Newmark: semantic translation and communicative translation
彼得·纽马克：语义翻译和交际翻译
Approaches to Translation, (1981) 《翻译探索》
A Textbook of Translation(1988) 《翻译教程》
英国著名翻译理论家和翻译教育家，典型的实践型理论家。他将跨文化交际理论和现代语言学理论运用到翻译研究，认为翻译既是科学，又是艺术和技能。
Translation is a skill and an art as well as a science.
纽马克认为翻译理论起源于比较语言学，属语言学范畴，主要是语义学的一个分支。
Purposes of translation:
Peter Newmark in his About Translation: 1) To contribute to the understanding
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and peace between nations, groups, and individuals. 2) To transmit knowledge in plain, appropriate and accessible language, in particular in relation to technology transfer. 3) To explain and mediate between cultures on the basis of common humanity, respecting their strengths, implicitly exposing their weakness. 4) To translate the world's great books, the universal works in which the human spirit is enshrined and lives. 5) As a general aid or as a skill required in the acquisition of a foreign language.
“语义翻译和交际翻译”理论：
About Peter Newmark’s Translation Theory
According to Peter Newmark, communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. In theory, there are wide differences between the two methods.
Communicative translation must emphasize the effect rather than the content of the message, and semantic translation would be more informative but less effective. Semantic translation attempts to recreate the precise flavor and tone of the original and it relates to the “expressive” function of language, whereas communicative translation responds to the representational and vocative functions. Thus for “Wet Paint!”, the communicative translation “Don’t touch the wet paint” is mandatory; the semantic translation(‘paint is wet’) would be
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more informative but less effective.
SL emphasis TL emphasis
Word-for-word translation Adaptation
Literal translation Free translation Faithful translation Idiomatic translation
Semantic translation Communicative translation
语言意义：语言是复杂的、多层次的“关系的网络”。查尔斯·莫里斯（Charles Morris）的符号学意义观：所指意义（referential meaning）、言内意义（linguistic meaning）、语用意义（pragmatic meaning）
B. Hatim and I. Mason: Translator—a mediator between the producer of a source text and its TL receivers
哈蒂姆与梅森：译者——作者与读者的协调者
当代著名的翻译理论家，Centre for Translation and Interpreting Studies in Scotland, 从事语言学和翻译研究
Discourse and the Translator (1990) 《话语与译者》
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主要研究方向是政治论文话语和相关的跨文化方向问题，强调语境对译者的制约作用，认为
翻译是特定语境中的交际过程。语境被分为三个层面：
交际层面（communicative dimension）：研究语言变体产生的条件
语用层面（pragmatic dimension）：研究言语行为、意图等
语用学研究语言和语言使用环境的关系，即“特定情景中的特定话语，尤其是不同语言交际环境下如何理解语言和运用语言。
J. Austin: Speech act theory: locutionary, illocutionary, perlocutionary act
正是“言外之力”（illocutionary force）使话语产生了交际能力。
P. Grice: Cooperative Principle: 4 Maxims: quantity (informative as required), quality (true), relation (relevant), manner (perspective)
Implicature (会话含意)：violation of the maxims
符号层面（semiotic dimension）：把交际实体及其语用含义放在整个符号系统中进行
符号：作者与读者赖以交流的语言实体。符号不仅指代某个词或某个观念，而且自我更新，在特定文化的集体潜意识中确定自己的意义。
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翻译应该以“符号实体为转换单位”，注意符号与符号之间的关联。
句法关联（syntactic relations）语义关联（semantic relations）语用关联(pragmatic relations)
译者的选择主要取决于文类(genre)、话语(discourse)、语篇(text)
语境是影响交际的中心因素，连贯是在语篇层次上决定交际能否顺利的基本点。影响语篇结构的因素有语境和作者意图。
Susan Bassnett: cultural translation
苏珊·巴斯奈特：文化翻译论
英国及世界翻译界著名翻译理论家和著名诗人。沃里克大学比较文学教授，主管英国文化研究中心。获得法语的哲学博士，精通英语、意大利语、法语、和西班牙语，熟悉德语和葡萄牙语，懂拉丁语、丹麦语捷克语等。先后在美国、巴西、加拿大、智利、比利时、瑞典、捷克、芬兰、德国、意大利、中国、日本、新加坡、印尼等国著名学府任教。
专著和编著40余部,论文100多篇
Translation Studies (1980)《翻译研究》：1991年伦敦再版，纽约同时出版总结了她翻译研究的主要思想，是里程碑。分三大部分。
一、 讨论翻译中意义的分析、不可译性、等值、翻译的信息论等主要问题。
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二、 论述不同历史时期各种不同的翻译观及其相互联系。
三、 结合诗歌、散文和戏剧的翻译，讨论翻译的具体问题。
巴斯奈特沿用勒菲弗尔的提法，认为翻译研究不是比较文学的一个分支，也不是隶属于语言学的特殊领域，而是一门独立学科，跨领域，与文体学、文史学、语言学、符号学和美学密切相关。
目前翻译地位低下，是从属、第二性，强调翻译的创造性，提高译者的地位。
两种不同的翻译观：偏激，绝对，都不尊重翻译实际。
1、 机械翻译观：认为译者必须否认、压制自我创造力，才能真实地重现原文作者的风貌。
2、 创造性翻译观：灵活、自由的翻译
与勒菲弗尔、根茨勒主编了两套世界译坛最有影响的翻译理论从书：Translation Studies《翻译研究从书》和Topics in Translation《翻译主题从书》
巴斯奈特认为，翻译研究是沟通其相关领域的桥梁，目的是构建一套综合的翻译理论，并用以指导翻译实践。
译文评判的方法
一、 译文与原文的接近程度，比较狭隘，更适合与科技翻译。
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二、 以译入语为标准，从单语角度评判，有一定的实用性，但有局限性，更适用于诗歌和剧本翻译。
巴斯奈特认为翻译的评判标准与文化密不可分，而且不断变化，要辨证地考察，充分考虑翻译过程，以及其特定的语境、翻译目的等。
翻译研究的研究领域：
1、翻译史研究
2、译语文化中的翻译研究
3、翻译与语言学研究
4、翻译与诗学研究
文化翻译观：翻译就是文化内部与文化之间的交流，翻译等值就是原语与译语在文化功能上的等值，提出应该把翻译单位从普遍接受的语篇转移到文化转换（cultural turn）。翻译的根本在于满足文化的需要和一定文化里不同群体的需要，同时要考虑时空背景。总之，翻译是一种跨文化的转换行为。
Scotland’s whisky: tradition, quality, status Italian Martini: young, fashion, wealth, charm
翻译四大功能：翻译的功能主要取决于翻译的服务对象和原语文本在原语文化中的功能。它能促进文学发展；影响译入文化；促进语言的比较研究；促进文学翻译规范的形成。
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事实上，巴斯奈特的“文化功能对等”与奈达的“功能对等”以及纽马克交际翻译的“对等
效果”的翻译原则是一致的，都强调译文对译语读者的效果、翻译过程中的灵活性和创造性。
It was packed like sardines.
Cultural difference cultural gap
硕人
手如柔荑，
肤如凝脂。
领如蝤蛴，
齿如瓠犀。
螓首蛾眉，
巧笑倩兮，
美目盼兮。
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The Beauty
Her hands are small, her fingers slim;
Her skin is smooth as cream;
Her swan-like neck is long and slim;
Her teeth like pearls do gleam.
A broad forehead and arching brow
Complement her dimpled cheeks
And make her black eyes glow.
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